The History of Sex Discrimination Legislation in the US

The United States Constitution did not mention women or limit any of its rights or privileges to males. The word persons was used, which sounds gender neutral. However, common law, inherited from British precedents, informed the interpretation of the law. And many state laws were not gender-neutral. While right after the Constitution was adopted, New Jersey accepted voting rights for women, even those had been lost by a bill in 1807 that rescinded the right of both women and black men to vote in that state. The principle of coverture prevailed at the time the Constitution was written and adopted: a married woman was simply not a person under the law; her legal existence was bound up with that of her husbands. Dower rights, meant to protect a widows income during her lifetime, were already being ignored increasingly, and so women were in the tough position of not having significant rights to own property, while the convention of dower that had protected them under that system was collapsing. Beginning in the 1840s, womens rights advocates began working to establish legal and political equality for women in some of the states. Property rights of women were among the first targets. But these did not affect the federal constitutional rights of women. Not yet. 1868: Fourteenth Amendment to the US Constitution The first major constitutional change to affect womens rights was the Fourteenth Amendment. This amendment was designed to overturn the Dred Scott decision, which found that black people had no rights which the white man was bound to respect, and to clarify other citizenship rights after the American Civil War had ended. The primary effect was to ensure that freed slaves and other African Americans had full citizenship rights. But the amendment also included the word male in connection with voting, and the womens rights movement split over whether to support the amendment because it established racial equality in voting, or oppose it because it was the first explicit federal denial that women had voting rights. 1873: Bradwell v. Illinois Myra Bradwell claimed the right to practice law as part of the 14th Amendments protections. The Supreme Court found that the right to choose ones profession was not a protected right and that womens paramount destiny and mission was the offices of wife and mother. Women could be legally excluded from the practice of law, the Supreme Court found, using a separate spheres argument. 1875: Minor v. Happerset The suffrage movement decided to use the Fourteenth Amendment, even with that mention of male, to justify women voting. A number of women in 1872 attempted to vote in a federal election; Susan B. Anthony was arrested and convicted for doing so. A Missouri woman, Virginia Minor, also challenged the law. The registrars action forbidding her from voting was the basis for yet another case to reach the Supreme Court (her husband had to file the lawsuit, as coverture laws forbid her as a married woman from filing on her own behalf). In their decision in  Minor v. Happerset, the Court found that while women were indeed citizens, voting was not one of the privileges and immunities of citizenship and thus states could deny women the right to vote. 1894: In re Lockwood Belva Lockwood filed a lawsuit to force Virginia to allow her to practice law. She was already a member of the bar in the District of Columbia. But the Supreme Court found that it was acceptable to read the word citizens in the 14th Amendment to include only male citizens. 1903: Muller v. Oregon Thwarted in legal cases claiming womens full equality as citizens, womens rights and labor rights workers filed the Brandeis Brief in the case of Muller v. Oregon. The claim was that womens special status as wives and mothers, especially as mothers, required that they be given special protection as workers. The Supreme Court had been reluctant to allow legislatures to interfere with contract rights of employers by permitting limits on hours or minimum wage requirements; however, in this case, the Supreme Court looked at evidence of working conditions and permit special protections for women in the workplace. Louis Brandeis, himself later appointed to the Supreme Court, was the lawyer for the case promoting protective legislation for women; the Brandeis brief was prepared primarily by his sister-in-law Josephine Goldmark and by reformer Florence Kelley. 1920: Nineteenth Amendment Women were granted the right to vote by the 19th Amendment, passed by Congress in 1919 and ratified by enough states in 1920 to take effect. 1923: Adkins v. Childrens Hospital In 1923, the Supreme Court decided that federal minimum wage legislation applying to women infringed on the liberty of contract and thus on the Fifth Amendment. Muller v. Oregon was not overturned, however. 1923: Equal Rights Amendment Introduced Alice Paul wrote a proposed Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution to require equal rights for men and women. She named the proposed amendment for suffrage pioneer Lucretia Mott. When she reworded the amendment in the 1940s, it came to be called the Alice Paul amendment. It did not pass the Congress until 1972. 1938: West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish This decision by the Supreme Court, overturning Adkins v. Childrens Hospital, upheld Washington States minimum wage legislation, opening the door again for protective labor legislation applying to women or men. 1948: Goesaert v. Cleary In this case, the Supreme Court found valid a state statute prohibiting most women (other than wives or daughters of male tavern keepers) from serving or selling liquor. 1961: Hoyt v. Florida The Supreme Court heard this case challenging a conviction on the basis that the female defendant faced an all-male jury because jury duty was not mandatory for women. The Supreme Court denied that the state statute exempting women from jury duty was discriminatory, finding that women needed protection from the atmosphere of the courtroom and that it was reasonable to assume that women were needed in the home. 1971: Reed v. Reed In  Reed v. Reed, the U.S. Supreme Court heard a case where state law preferred males to females as administrators of an estate. In this case, unlike many earlier cases, the Court held that the 14th Amendments equal protection clause applied to women equally. 1972: Equal Rights Amendment Passes Congress In 1972, the US Congress passed the Equal Rights Amendment, sending it to the states. The Congress appended a requirement that the amendment be ratified within seven years, later extended to 1982, but only 35 of the requisite states ratified it during that period. Some legal scholars challenge the deadline, and by that assessment, the ERA is still alive to be ratified by three more states. 1973: Frontiero v. Richardson In the case of  Frontiero v. Richardson, the Supreme Court found that the military could not have different criteria for male spouses of military members in deciding eligibility for benefits, violating the Fifth Amendments Due Process Clause. The court also signaled that it would be using more scrutiny in the future in looking at sex distinctions in the law—not quite strict scrutiny, which did not get majority support among the justices in the case. 1974: Geduldig v. Aiello Geduldig v. Aiello looked at a states disability insurance system which excluded temporary absences from work due to pregnancy disability and found that normal pregnancies did not have to be covered by the system. 1975: Stanton v. Stanton In this case, the Supreme Court threw out distinctions in the age at which girls and boys were entitled to child support. 1976: Planned Parenthood v. Danforth The Supreme Court found that spousal consent laws (in this case, in the third trimester) were unconstitutional because the pregnant womans rights were more compelling than her husbands. The Court did uphold that regulations requiring the womans full and informed consent were constitutional. 1976: Craig. v. Boren In  Craig v. Boren, the court threw out a law which treated men and women differently in setting a drinking age. The case is also noted for setting out the new standard of judicial review in cases involving sex discrimination, intermediate scrutiny. 1979: Orr v. Orr In Orr v. Orr, the Court held that alimony laws applied equally to women and men and that the means of the partner were to be considered, not merely their sex. 1981: Rostker v. Goldberg In this case, the Court applied equal protection analysis to examine whether male-only registration for the Selective Service violated the due process clause.  By a six to three decision, the Court applied the heightened scrutiny standard of  Craig v. Boren  to find that military readiness and appropriate use of resources justified the sex-based classifications. The court did not challenge the exclusion of women from combat and the role of women in the armed forces in making their decision. 1987: Rotary International v. Rotary Club of Duarte In this case, the Supreme Court weighed a  Ã¢â‚¬Å"States efforts to eliminate gender-based discrimination against its citizens and the constitutional freedom of association asserted by members of a private organization.† A unanimous decision by the court, with a decision written by Justice Brennan, found unanimously that the message of the organization would not be changed by admitting women, and therefore, by the strict scrutiny test, the interest of the state overrode a claim to a First Amendment right of freedom of association and freedom of speech.

The Effects Of Technology On Education - 1377 Words

Amidst the past several decades technology has become a crucial organ, advancing our world to great discoveries and knowledge. It has opened doors to what some may have found impossible only one hundred years ago, but the progress of technology seems to have run into a road block. Inadequate education of high school graduates and suffocation of creativity has become a problem all over America. Technology has contributed by hindering our ability to retain information, stalling progression in our school system and progressing in technology. Technology can be advantageous for everyone, but because of its convenience and accessibility it is hindering our ability to retain information. Within an article written by Timothy Noah titled†¦show more content†¦Instead we have become co-dependent with technology and we have been raising our children to follow in our footsteps. We cannot expect Americas set back in education to fix itself, we must act in order to better the education of our children and ourselves. Technology has taken over countless teaching methods and instigated the flatline of our educational system. Indeed, technology can have many educational contributions, but today they are taken advantage of. For technology to be a steady contribution to education we must re-discover the meaning of progress and innovation. Tyler Cowen, in a Ted Talk titled â€Å"The Great Stagnation†, says that for Innovation to be effective it must improve and not just merely alter. This means that if we are continuing to be innovative we must continually be improving for there to be any progress. For example, Apple has released a â€Å"better iPhone† each year, but if you compare the phone to the previous year you will not find many differences. Maybe the screen will be larger, the apps may be remodeled, but most of the time the core processer is the same, the camera has the same pixels and the phones screen still cracks if you put it in your back pocket. This is innovation with no progress, presenting a shiny new phone that may be shiny, but not new. Within an article written by Jà ¶rg Friedrich titledShow MoreRelatedThe Effects of Technology in Education3250 Words   |  13 PagesCheng Chang Burgess Olivia ENG 60 26 July 2012 The Effects of Technology in Education Modern technology has penetrated every aspect of our lives and made great impacts on our daily activities, especially in the area of education. The continuous infusion of technology in education has become an unchangeable tendency. Given the increased use of technology in education, much research has been done on the value of technology in education. 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lord of the flies simon as a christ figure Essay Example For Students

lord of the flies: simon as a christ figure Essay The character of Simon in William Goldings Lord of the Flies has often been viewed as the Christ figure of the novel. If you were to examine the actions of both Simon and Jesus, you would find a number of incidents that parallel each other. One of the first things that Simon does that depicts a Christ-like action, is found in chapter 3 when he helps the littluns get fruit, Simon found for them the fruit they could not reach (Golding 56). During his lifetime, Jesus often aided the hungry, one example being when he turned 5 loaves of bread and 2 fish into enough food for thousands of people. Later in the chapter Simon finds himself in the wilderness. While there, Simon was calm and enjoyed the solitude of his surroundings; He came at last to a place where more sunshine fell (Golding 56). Right after Jesus Baptism God spoke to him and the heavens were opened unto him, and he saw the Spirit of God decending like a dove, and lighting upon him (Matthew 3:16). The light that Simon encountered can also be seen as God speaking to him, which can help to explain why Simon seems so serene in the wilderness. In chapter five, the boys begin to discuss the existence of a beast on the island. When asked what he thought about it, Simon replied with what I mean is maybe its only us (Golding 89). The idea that the evil was not something to be feared in the jungle, but to be feared within themselves was not received well by the rest of the boys. Simons effort fell about him in ruins, the laughter beat him cruelly and he shrank away defenseless to his seat (Golding 89). Many of the prophecies revealed by Jesus were also disregarded and not accepted by everyone. This depicts that both Simon and Jesus were misunderstood by the people around them. Simons encounter with the Lord of the Flies in chapter nine can be seen as a parallel to Jesus confrontation with Satan in the desert. Simon and Jesus were both challenged by evil but overcame it. Although, the Lord of the Flies would reveal to Simon that it is the evil within the boys, You knew, didnt you? Im part of you? (Golding 143). From this, he rea ches an epiphany and later leaves to tell the other boys. While returning to tell the boys, Simon is hit in the side by a spear. Jesus was also stabbed in the side before his crucifixion. The deaths of Simon and Jesus also had many things in common. Both were killed by members of their community, and were persecuted for the sins and evil of others. The events that directly followed the deaths of Simon and Jesus are very much similar also. According to the Bible, when Jesus was being persecuted there was darkness over the whole land (Mark 15:33) and once he died the earth shook. When Simon died the clouds opened and let down the rain like a waterfall (Golding 153). One of the last parallels between Simon and Jesus is shown after Simons death. While his body laid on the beach the strange attendant creatures with their fiery eyes and trailing vapors, busied themselves round his head (Golding 154). This event can be linked to Jesus crown of thorns being placed on his head. Throughout the novel, Lord of the Flies, Golding illustrates Simon as the only boy on the island holding a good soul. Many of the actions and events that Simon goes through also contain a very strong link to the actions of Christ.

Television Is Dangerous Essay Example

Television Is Dangerous Essay Some people argue that television is the culprit of destroying the family living and communication due to absorbing people’s time too much. People, therefore, have no time to talk to each other. I totally disagree with this opinion for the following reasons. In terms of the personal level, television can not be the family living in parallel with communication. Thanks to interesting program, more things can be shared among family members, which strikes up conversations and gossip among people. As a result, fathers and sons easily become friends of same hobbies like watching football matches in spite of different generations. In fact, television plays a role in a family life. In terms of the family level, television also proves real advantages. Mutual understanding about each other through the social programs of domestic violence or juvenile psychology is cultivated by kids and parents. In modern life, it is clear that seldom do kids and parents have much in common. Consequently, kids become rebellious. It is because of television that bridges generations to a better relationship. In term of the community level, television is likely to shorten the gap between developed nations and developing ones. With punctually broadcast documentaries, we have deeper cross-cultural understanding and find it easier to communicate with oversea people. Moreover, television serves to facilitate people entertainment life. Sitting in front of TV, people can learn how to do yoga from an Indian yoga expert in order to get a healthy life. To sum up, I reckon that television should not be blamed for destruction of family living and communication. Admittedly, television is part of human life. We will write a custom essay sample on Television Is Dangerous specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Television Is Dangerous specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Television Is Dangerous specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer

Sport Organization Essay Example

Sport Organization Essay Scenario: A LPGA coordinator decided to cut off some of her staff because she is convinced that there are no good workers in the field (this will save the business from bankruptcy). Therefore, she decided to do a gamble and have only volunteers and interns to take the job of four assistants. With game theory as the theoretical standard, the scenario can be viewed in two scenes. If the workers in the field are, by standard, inefficient, then it is necessary for the coordinator to do either of the following: 1) to replace the staff with people who are much efficient, or 2) to delegate the work to the volunteers and interns. Replacing the staff with people who are â€Å"assumed† to be efficient is very costly to the business, precisely because labor turnovers necessitates increased expenditures on advertisement and lofty transactions with the labor agencies. However, once the people hired proved to be efficient, then the business might be able to escape from bankruptcy. Altogether this option is clearly costly and has a high level of uncertainty. This option is moderately risky. The first option however has sub-options. The coordinator may hire a lower number of individuals who are proven to be very efficient in their former work (similar or related field). This hiri ng should be supplemented by a higher incentive (income) which will stimulate increased productivity among the workers. We will write a custom essay sample on Sport Organization specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Sport Organization specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Sport Organization specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer This first sub-option will in the long-run increase the productivity and efficiency of the workers, and consequently the business. Cost are much lower than the first option since only few individuals are hired, hence less expenditure on advertising and indirect transactions with labor agencies. Short-run benefits are also high. This option is also moderately risky. The second sub-option is: the coordinator may hire a lower number of individuals to do the work of the workers laid-off. This option is not good business decision since this will not stimulate increased productivity. Both in the short and long run, return to investment is in the same level of the given scenario. This option is very risky. The second general option is good in the short-run. It will enable the business to recover partially since the wages of the workers are transformed into fluid capital. However because of lack of incentives to the volunteers and interns, the chance of an increase in productivity is remote. Hence, the probability that the business will stay in two or five years will be about .40, since the amount of labor spent does not equate the amount of benefits. In the long-run, the business will have a slim chance of recruiting volunteers and interns. Thus, this option is very risky for the business. Clearly, the option chosen by the coordinator in due time will be magnified on the recruitment level of the business. Because the option was very risky, this will financially handicap the business in the future, since the fluid capital of the business is not utilized by an efficient labor. As had been said earlier, there is a slim chance for the volunteers and interns to increase their level of productivity given the absence of any incentive. The risk taking propensity of the coordinator clearly lacked proper evaluation of other options, albeit the unprecedented condition of his business. Thus, her decision to lay-off her staff and replace it with volunteers and interns will not help her business. It will gradually take her business into a financial disaster albeit the lack of qualified laborers. Added to that, her assumption that there were no good workers in her business is a misguided one. An assumption is built on a pyramid of well-organized facts and arguments, with a clear set of standard. Anyone who is in the position of the coordinator, ceteris paribus, will experience the same results if the latter option is chosen (Kamalanabhan and Sunder, 2007). Unless other variables are examined, not just the composition of the staff, such will be the result.   Simply put, the coordinator must view all the options available and assess them via a standard.

The Roman Tetrarchy and the Rule of Four

The Roman Tetrarchy and the Rule of Four The word Tetrarchy means rule of four. It derives from the Greek words for four (tetra-) and rule (arch-). In practice, the word refers to the division of an organization or government into four parts, with a different person ruling each part. There have been several Tetrarchies over the centuries, but the phrase is usually used to refer to the division of the Roman Empire into a western and eastern empire, with subordinate divisions within the western and eastern empires. The Roman Tetrarchy Tetrarchy refers to the establishment by the Roman Emperor Diocletian of a 4-part division of the empire. Diocletian understood that the huge Roman Empire could be (and often was) taken over by any general who chose to assassinate the emperor. This, of course, caused significant political upheaval; it was virtually impossible to unite the empire. The reforms of Diocletian came after a period when many emperors had been assassinated. This earlier period is referred to as chaotic and the reforms were meant to remedy the political difficulties that the Roman Empire faced. Diocletians solution to the problem was to create multiple leaders, or Tetrarchs, located in multiple locations. Each would have significant power. Thus, the death of one of the Tetrarchs would not mean a change in governance. This new approach, in theory, would lower the risk of assassination and, at the same time, made it nearly impossible to overthrow the entire Empire at a single blow. When he split up the leadership of the Roman Empire in 286, Diocletian continued to rule in the East. He made Maximian his equal and co-emperor in the west. They were each called Augustus which signified that they were emperors. In 293, the two emperors decide to name additional leaders who could take over for them in the case of their deaths. Subordinate to the emperors were the two Caesars: Galerius, in the east, and Constantius in the west. An Augustus was always emperor; sometimes the Caesars were also referred to as emperors. This method of creating emperors and their successors bypassed the need for approval of emperors by the Senate and blocked the power of the military to elevate their popular generals to the purple. [Source: The City of Rome in late imperial ideology: The Tetrarchs, Maxentius, and Constantine, by Olivier Hekster, from Mediterraneo Antico 1999.] The Roman Tetrarchy functioned well during Diocletians life, and he and Maximian did indeed turn over leadership to the two subordinate Caesars, Galerius and Constantius. These two, in turn, named two new Caesars: Severus and Maximinus Daia.  The untimely death of Constantius, however, led to political warring. By 313, the Tetrarchy was no longer functional, and, in 324, Constantine became sole Emperor of Rome.   Other Tetrarchies While the Roman Tetrarchy is the most famous, other four-person ruling groups have existed through history. Among the best-known was The Herodian Tetrarchy, also called the Tetrarchy of Judea. This group, formed after the death of Herod the Great in 4 BCE, included Herods sons.

Security for Credit Card Fraud in E-commerce Essay

Security for Credit Card Fraud in E-commerce - Essay Example It has provided the world with innovative modes of communication from one end of the globe to the other [7]. Another area which has witnessed ground-breaking revolution is the conception of e-commerce; an idea which would have seemed unattainable for a man in the past. E-commerce encapsulates the concept of buying and selling products online, which involves money transactions from around the world. Since these transactions are usually done through credit cards, therefore this raises a need to authenticate and verify the customers who are involved in purchasing goods online. Their location, personal information, and account information need to be verified so that the chances of fraud can be minimized [2]. There are over 1.2 billion internet users all over the world [14]; Cheskin Research & Studio Archetype/Sapient concludes some internet users pose threats and some pose opportunities [3]. One of the major threats prevailing in the modern age is the validity of the transactions that take place online [16]. This mistrust in business owners is the product of the thousands of fraud cases witnessed in the past and this has led the companies to deploy extreme security measures to tackle this threat [4]. The goal of e-commerce sites is as follows; one is to reduce the degree of fraudulent activities, try to lower the number of rejections for legitimate orders as much as possible and minimize the number of manual reviews of transactions which prove to be costly for the company [5]. From these three objectives, it can be seen that fraud is their topmost concern and due to this they spend a large part of their resources in overcoming this challenge. The mode of payment in e-commerce transactions is through ‘credit cards’; which have established more opportunities for businessmen but at the same time introduced new problems in the whole process of selling goods [10].